•  
  •  
 

ORCID

0000-0001-8386-6130

Keywords

finances, integration, international students, retention, student visas

Abstract

This paper presents a model of international student retention influences that affect these students’ decisions to remain at a university in the United States. The levels of the model, in order of importance, are intentions/background characteristics and finances, academic integration, cultural identity, and social integration. Intentions/background characteristics and finances are related to and influence each other in terms of their impact on retention. While multiple retention theories focus on the socialization of college students, this model posits that financial and academic factors have greater influence. The paper also discusses the influence that being a non-immigrant visa status international student has on the international student experience in the United States and how that affects their retention intentions.

References

Abasi, A. R., Akbari, N., & Graves, B. (2006). Discourse appropriation, construction of identities, and the complex issue of plagiarism: ESL students writing in graduate school.  Journal of Second Language Writing, 15(2), 102–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2006.05.001

Abdul-Rahaman, N., Arkorful, V. E., & Okereke, T. (2022). Academic integration in higher education: A review of effective institutional strategies and personal factors. Frontiers in Education, 7, 1–9. http://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2022.856967

Ahmadi, G. Y. (2016). International student adjustment to college: The relationships between adjustment, background characteristics and student success [Doctoral dissertation, St. Cloud State University]. Retrieved from https://repository.stcloudstate.edu/hied_etds/8/

Althen, G. (1990). Orientation of foreign students. NAFSA Field Service Working Paper #13.

Ammigan, R., & Jones, E. (2018). Improving the student experience: Learning from a comparative study of international student satisfaction. Journal of Studies in International Education, 22(4), 283–301. https://doi.org/10.1177/1028315318773137

Andrade, M. S. (2006a). International student persistence: Integration or cultural integrity?. Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice, 8(1), 5781. https://doi.org/10.2190/9MY5-256H-VFVA-8R8P

Andrade, M. S. (2006b). International students in English-speaking universities: Adjustment factors. Journal of Research in International Education, 5(2), 131–154. https://doi.org/10.1177/1475240906065589

Andrade, M. S. (2008). International student persistence at a faith-based institution. Christian Higher Education, 7, 434–451. https://doi.org/10.1080/15363750802016385

Arizona State University. (n.d.). Interfaith resources. https://eoss.asu.edu/mu/whats-in/interfaith-room

Arkoudis, S., Dollinger, M., Baik, C., & Patience, A. (2019). International students’ experience in Australian higher education: Can we do better?. Higher Education, 77, 799-813. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-018-0302-x

Astin, A. W. (1993). What matters in college? Four Critical Years Revisited. Jossey-Bass.

Bean, J. P., & Metzner, B. S. (1985). A conceptual model of nontraditional undergraduate student attrition. Review of Educational Research, 55(4), 485–540. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543055004485

Bista, K., & Foster, C. (2011). Issues of international student retention in American higher education. The International Journal of Research and Review, 7(2), 1–10.

Bynum, N. (2024). International students: Retention Trends and Issues. In A. Seidman (Ed.), College Student Retention, (3rd ed., pp. 239–255). Rowman & Littlefield.

Campbell, A. (2017, December 20). Cultural differences in plagiarism. Turnitin. https://Turnitin.com/blog/cultural-differences-in-plagiarism

Chen, Y. (2014). The influence of self-efficacy on degree aspiration among domestic and international community college students (Publication No. 3641008) [Doctoral dissertation, Iowa State University]. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.

Choudaha, R. (2017). Are international students “cash cows”?. International Higher Education, 90, 5–6. https://doi.org/10.6017/ihe.2017.90.9993

Crumley-Effinger, M. (2024). ISM policy pervasion: Visas, study permits, and the international student experience. Journal of International Students, 14(1), 78–96. https://doi.org/10.32674/jis.v14i1.5347

Cruwys, T., Ng, N. W. K., Haslam, S. A., & Haslam, C. (2021). Identity continuity protects academic performance, retention, and life satisfaction among international students. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 70(3), 931–954. https://doi.org/10.1111/apps.12254

Di Maria, D. L., & Briggs, P. (2024). Building collaborations and relationships across campus. In D. L. Roberts & R. Ammigan (Eds.), Supporting international students in US higher education (pp. 203–218). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-46395-2

Duran, A., Dahl, L. S., Stipeck, C., & Mayhew, M. J. (2020). A critical quantitative analysis of students’ sense of belonging: Perspectives on race, generation status, and collegiate environments. Journal of College Student Development, 61(2), 133–153. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2020.0014

Fass-Holmes, B. (2016). International undergraduates’ retention, graduation, and time to degree. Journal of International Students, 6(4), 933-955. https://doi.org/10.32674/jis.v6i4.327

Fischer, M. (2007). Settling into campus life: Differences by race/ethnicity in college involvement and outcomes. Journal of Higher Education, 78, 125–156. https://doi.org/10.1353/jhe.2007.0009

Freeman, T. M., Anderman, L. H., & Jensen, J. M. (2007). Sense of belonging in college freshmen at the classroom and campus levels. Journal of Experiential Education, 75, 203-220. https://doi.org/10.3200/JEXE.75.3.203-220

Gansemer-Topf, A. M. & Schuh, J. H. (2024). Finances and retention: Trends and potential implications. In A. Seidman (Ed.), College student retention (3rd ed., pp. 103–119). Rowman & Littlefield. https://doi.org/10.5040/9798216414476.ch-005

Gantt, M. (2022, November 3). NAU brings in the light with Diwali celebration. The Lumberjack. https://www.jackcentral.org/culture/nau-brings-in-the-light-with-diwali-celebration/article_8c212b96-5b8c-11ed-96b1-5f2dfb0db781.html

Garcia, H. A., Garza, T., & Yeaton-Hromada, K. (2019). Do we belong? A conceptual model for international students’ sense of belonging in community colleges. Journal of International Students, 9(2), 460–487. https://doi.org/10.32674/jis.v9i2.669

Garcia, G. A., Nunez, A.-M., & Sansone, V. A. (2019). Toward a multidimensional conceptual framework for understanding “servingness” in Hispanic-Serving Institutions: A synthesis of research. Review of Educational Research, 89(5), 745–784. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654319864591

Garcia, G. A., & Okhidoi, O. (2015). Culturally relevant practices that “serve” students at a Hispanic Serving Institution. Innovative Higher Education, 40, 345–357. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10755-015-9318-7

Glass, C. R. (2012). Educational experiences associated with international students’ learning, development, and positive perceptions of campus climate. Journal of Studies in International Education, 16(3), 228–251. http://doi.org/10.1177/1028315311426783

Glass, C. R., & Gesing, P. (2018). The development of social capital through international students’ involvement in campus organizations. Journal of International Students, 8(3), 301–316. https://doi.org/10.32674/jis.v8i3.52

Glass, C. R., Gomez, E., & Urzua, A. (2014). Recreation, intercultural friendship, and international students’ adaptation to college by region of origin. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 42, 104–117. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2014.05.007 

Glass, C. R., & Westmont, C. M. (2014). Comparative effects of belongingness on the academic success and cross-cultural interactions of domestic and international students. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 38, 106–119. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2013.04.004

Gopalan, M., & Brady, S. T. (2020). College students’ sense of belonging: A national perspective. Educational Researcher, 49(2), 134–137. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X19897622

Hausman, L. R., Schofield, J. W., & Woods, R. L. (2007). Sense of belonging as a predictor of intention to persist among African American and White first-year college students. Research in Higher Education, 48(7), 803–839. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-007-9052-9

Haverila, M. J., Haverila, K., & McLaughlin, C. (2020). Variables affecting the retention intentions of students in higher education institutions: A comparison between international and domestic students. Journal of International Students, 10(2), 358–382. https://doi.org/10.32674/jis.v10i2.1849

Hellman, K., & Miranda, D. (2015). Connecting international student retention and global competency. International Student Experience Journal, 3(1), 9.

Hoffman, M., Richmond, J., Morrow, J., & Salomone, K. (2002). Investigating “sense of belonging” in first-year college students. Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice, 4, 227–256. https://doi.org/10.2190/DRYC-CXQ9-JQ8V-HT4V

Institute of International Education. (2023a). Enrollment trends. https://opendoorsdata.org/data/international-students/enrollment-trends/

Institute of International Education. (2023b). International students. Open Doors Report on International Educational Exchange. https://opendoorsdata.org/data/international-students/

Jones, E. (2017). Problematising and reimagining the notion of ‘international student experience’. Studies in Higher Education, 42(5), 933–943. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2017.1293880

Kisch, M. (2014). Helping faculty teach international students. International Educator, 23(6), 44–47.

Knox, L. (2024, January 12). Gaming the student visa system. Inside Higher Education. https://www.insidehighered.com/news/global/international-students-us/2024/01/12/international-admission-offices-plagued-fraud-and

Koo, K. K., & Chresfield, R. (2024). “Strive to survive” international students’ unique stressors and well-being: What they need and how to support them?. In D. L. Roberts & R. Ammigan (Eds.), Supporting international students in US higher education (pp. 115–130). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-46395-2

Krsmanovic, M. (2022). Encountering American higher education: First-year academic transition of international undergraduate students in the United States. Journal of Global Education and Research, 6(2), 148–165. https://doi.org/10.5038/2577-509X.6.2.1164

Kwai, C. K. (2009). Model of international student persistence: Factors influencing retention of international undergraduate students at two public statewide four-year university systems (Publication No. 3390997) [Doctoral dissertation, University of Minnesota]. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.

Mamiseishvili, K. (2012). International student persistence in U.S. postsecondary institutions. Higher Education, 64, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-011-9477-0

Martirosyan, N. M., Hwang, E., & Wanjohi, R. (2015). Impact of English proficiency on academic performance of international students. Journal of International Students, 5(1), 60–71. https://doi.org/10.32674/jis.v5i1.443

Merola, R. H., Coelen, R. J., & Hofman, W. H. A. (2019). The role of integration in understanding differences in satisfaction among Chinese, Indian, and South Korean international students. Journal of Studies in International Education, 23(5), 535–553. https://doi.org/10.1177/1028315319861355

Mostafa, H., & Lim, Y. (2020). Examining the relationship between motivations and resilience in different international student groups attending U.S. universities. Journal of International Students, 10(2), 306–319. http://doi.org/10.32674/jis.v10i2.603

Mott-Smith, J., Tomas, Z., & Kostka, I. (2020). Teaching writing. ELT Development Series (rev. ed.). TESOL Press.

Museus, S., Wright-Mair, R., & Mac, J. (2018). How Asian American and Native American Pacific Islander Serving Institutions (AANAPISIs) are creating the conditions for students to thrive. University of Pennsylvania Center for Minority Serving Institutions.

National Association for International Education. (2024, October 24). Financial aid for undergraduate international students. https://www.nafsa.org/about/about-international-education/financial-aid-undergraduate-international-students

Nguyen, M. H., Espinoza, K. J., Gogue, D. T. L., & Dinh, D. M. (2021). AANAPISIs in context and practice: Strategies for serving Asian Pacific Islander Desi American students. About Campus, 26(1), 5–9. https://doi.org/10.1177/1086482221994121

Nguyen, T.-H., Nguyen, M. H., Nguyen, B. M. D., Gasman, M., & Conrad, C. (2018). From marginalized to validated: An in-depth case study of an Asian American, Native American and Pacific Islander serving institution. The Review of Higher Education, 41(3), 327–363. https://doi.org/10.1353/rhe.2018.0011

Oyeniyi, O., Smith, R. L, Watson, J. C., & Nelson, K. (2021). A comparison of first-year international students’ adjustment to college at the undergraduate and graduate level. Journal of Comparative & International Higher Education, 13(2), 112–131. https://doi.org/10.32674/jcihe.v13i2.2584

Packer, H. (2023, January 23). Australian universities renew calls to limit student “poaching”. The PIE News. https://thepienews.com/australian-student-poaching/

Pascarella, E. T., & Terenzini, P. T. (2005). How college affects students: A third decade of research (Vol. 2). Jossey-Bass.

Pecorari, D., & Petric, B. (2014). Plagiarism in second-language writing. Language Teaching, 47(3), 269–302. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444814000056

Pedler, M. L., Willis, R., & Nieuwoudt, J. E. (2022). A sense of belonging at university: Student retention, motivation and enjoyment. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 46(3), 397–408. https://doi.org/10.1080/0309877X.2021.1955844

Rendón, L. I., Jalomo, R. E., & Nora, A. (2000). Theoretical considerations in the study of minority student retention in higher education. In J. M. Braxton (Ed.), Reworking the student departure puzzle (pp. 127–156). Vanderbilt University Press.

Ruffalo Noel Levitz & CollegeWeekLive (2015). How to engage international undergraduate and graduate students in the admissions process. Cedar Rapids, Iowa: Ruffalo Noel Levitz. Retrieved from www.ruffalonl.com

Rust, D. P., & Singh, R. (2020). Understanding the factors influencing institutional choice and satisfaction of international students from India. International Journal of Research and Review, 7(10), 376–383.

Rust, D. P., & Singh, R. (2021). First-year experience course impact on undergraduate international student retention and graduation. Journal of Educational Research & Practice, 11(1), 454–466. https://doi.org/10.5590/JERAP.2021.11.1.32

Sabouripour, F., & Roslan, S. B. (2015). Resilience, optimism, and social support among international students. Asian Social Science, 11(15), 159–170. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/ass.v11n15p159

Shapiro, S., Farrelly, R., & Tomas, Z. (2023). Fostering international student success in higher education (2nd ed.). TESOL Press.

Seifert, T. A., & Tran, Q. N. (2024). Framing student development theory. In D. L. Roberts & R. Ammigan (Eds.), Supporting international students in US higher education (pp. 37–51). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-46395-2

Sherry, M., Thomas, P., & Chui, W. H. (2010). International students: A vulnerable student population. Higher Education, 60, 33-46. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-009-9284-z

Singh, N. (2021). The economic contribution of international students in higher education in the United States – A review. 4D International Journal of Management and Science, 12(1), 6–18.

Smathers, K., Chapman, E., Deringer, N. & Grieb, T. (2024). The relationship between financial stress and college retention rates. Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice, 26(2), 581-604. https://doi.org/10.1177/15210251221104984

Smith, C. (2016). International student success. Strategic Enrollment Management Quarterly, 4(2), 61–73. https://doi.org/10.1002/sem3.20084

Smith, E. W. (2015). Undergraduate international student persistence at a large, public US institution [Doctoral dissertation, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville]. Retrieved from https://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_graddiss/3365

Spady, W. G. (1970). Dropouts from higher education: An interdisciplinary review and synthesis. Interchange, 1, 64-85. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02214313

Spencer, L. M. (2016). Exploring the transition experiences of successful international undergraduate students at a public research university in the USA: The impact on international student success and retention (Publication No. 10144719) [Doctoral dissertation, University of South Florida]. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.

Srivastava, S. K., Srivastava, A. K., Minerikc, A. R., & Schulz, N. N. (2010). Recruitment and retention of international graduate students in US universities. International Journal of Engineering Education, 26(6), 1561–1574.

St. John, E. P., Cabrera, A. E., Nora, A., & Asker, E. H. (2000). Economic influences on persistence reconsidered. In J. M. Braxton (Ed.), Reworking the student departure puzzle (pp. 29–47). Vanderbilt University Press.

Strayhorn, T. L. (2012). College students’ sense of belonging: A key to educational success for all students. Routledge.

Teixeira, M. (2024, October 5). Some U.S. schools are reportedly cashing in on degrees that double as work visas for international students. Latin Times. https://www.latintimes.com/some-us-schools-are-reportedly-cashing-degrees-that-double-work-visas-international-students-561290

Teranishi, R. T., Alcantar, C. M., Martin, M., & Nguyen, B. M. D. (2015). The return on investment for an AANAPISI-funded program: Outcomes for Asian American and Pacific Islander community college students. Paper presented at the National MSI Return on Investment Convening, Princeton, NJ.

Tinto, V. (1987). Leaving college: Rethinking the causes and cures of student attrition. The University of Chicago Press.

Tinto, V. (1993). Leaving college: Rethinking the causes and cures of student attrition. The University of Chicago Press.

Tinto, V. (2024). Student persistence through a different lens. Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice, 0(0), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1177/15210251241249158

Tirado, A. B. M. (2024, October 8). ‘Home away from home’: Asian cultural clubs host annual autumn festival. The Stanford Daily. https://stanforddaily.com/2024/10/08/asian-cultural-clubs-host-annual-autumn-festival/

UCLA. (n.d.). Bruin reflection space. https://www.asucla.ucla.edu/bruin-reflection-space

U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (n.d.). Students and exchange visitors. Retrieved from http://uscis.gov/working-in-the-united-states/students-and-exchange-visitors

Vaccaro, A., & Newman, B. M. (2016). Development of a sense of belonging for privileged and minoritized students: An emergent model. Journal of College Student Development, 57(8), 925–942. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2016.0091

Van Alebeek, W., & Wilson, K. B. (2019). Explaining the college choice decisions of international students at a regional university in the United States. Journal of Research in International Education, 18(3), 292–309. https://doi.org/10.1177/1475240919892468

Weidman, J. (1989). Undergraduate socialization: A conceptual approach. In J. Smart (Ed.), Higher Education: Handbook of theory and research, Vol. 5 (pp. 289–322). Agathon.

West, E., & Esaki-Smith, A. (2025, January 6). Will Trump take on misuse of student visas?. Inside Higher Education. https://www.insidehighered.com/opinion/views/2025/01/06/will-trump-take-misuse-student-visas-opinion

Yan, K., & Berliner, D. C. (2013). Chinese international students’ personal and sociocultural stressors in the United States. Journal of College Student Development, 54(1), 62–84. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2013.0010

Yao, C. (2015). Sense of belonging in international students: Making the case against integration to US institutions of higher education. Comparative and International Higher Education, 7, 6–10. https://doi.org/10.64899/589801tgypfc

Yao, C. W., & George Mwangi, C. A. (2022). Yellow peril and cash cows: The social positioning of Asian international students in the United States. Higher Education, 84(5), 1027–1044. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-022-00814-y

Yan, Z., & Sendall, P. (2016). First year experience: How we can better assist first-year international students in higher education. Journal of International Students, 6(1), 35–51. https://doi.org/10.32674/jis.v6i1.395

Zhang, H. (2023). A comparative study of Polish and Chinese student migrants in the UK motivation, integration and national identity (Doctoral dissertation, University College London).

Zhou, J., & Cole, D. (2017). Comparing international and American students: Involvement in college life and overall satisfaction. Higher Education, 73, 655–672. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-016-9982-2

Zong, C., & Davis, A. (2024). Modeling university retention and graduation rates using IPEDS. Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice, 26(2), 311–333. https://doi.org/10.1177/15210251221074379

Download

Share

COinS
 
 

To view the content in your browser, please download Adobe Reader or, alternately,
you may Download the file to your hard drive.

NOTE: The latest versions of Adobe Reader do not support viewing PDF files within Firefox on Mac OS and if you are using a modern (Intel) Mac, there is no official plugin for viewing PDF files within the browser window.